Paris Agreement
This section takes a more in-depth look at the Paris Agreement, expanding on the overview provided in Global frameworks. It covers the history leading from the UNFCCC to the Paris Agreement and the specific requirements the latter places on member states.
How global climate frameworks have evolved
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The UNFCCC was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1992. As of March 2026, it has 199 Parties.
Its ultimate objective is “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.” To achieve this, it operates on the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities,” which effectively means that developed countries are expected to take the lead.
In the area of adaptation, provisions were made to financially support adaptation efforts in developing countries that are highly vulnerable to climate change and have limited financial resources, and to promote the transfer of environmental technologies and expertise from developed countries. Consequently, the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF) and the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) were established.
COP meetings
To drive the achievement of UNFCCC goals, a Conference of the Parties (COP) has been convened annually (except in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic). These meetings involve negotiations among member states on international rules related to climate change measures, informed by scientific evidence from the IPCC.
While COP decisions are made by consensus, negotiations are often fraught owing to conflicts between developed countries and developing countries for whom economic development is also a priority.
COP3, held in Kyoto in 1997, resulted in the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, setting emission reduction targets for developed countries. The Adaptation Fund was established in 2001 as a mechanism for developed countries to support the adaptation efforts of developing countries.
Paris Agreement
Overview of the Paris Agreement
Because the Kyoto Protocol only covered the period up to 2020, the Paris Agreement was adopted at COP21 in 2015 as a post-2020 framework.
Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which bound only developed countries, the Paris Agreement established common rules for all countries regardless of development status.
The Paris Agreement aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by setting three long-term goals (Article 2):
- Hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2℃ above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5℃ above pre-industrial levels.
- Increase the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster climate resilience and low-greenhouse-gas-emissions development.
- Make financial flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development.
For adaptation, in addition to the second goal above, Article 7 established the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) of “enhancing adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change.” The Agreement also introduced the concept of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change beyond the limits of adaptation, such as territory loss from sea-level rise or climate-induced migration, and stressed the need to address such loss and damage.
Transparency and effectiveness of the Paris Agreement
To enhance the transparency and effectiveness of the actions of member states, the Paris Agreement requires them to observe the following rules, with all documentation submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat.
- Formulate and submit an Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC).
- Submit a Biennial Transparency Report (BTR) every two years detailing progress based on the NDC.
- Submit an updated and enhanced NDC every five years.
For adaptation, countries are encouraged to formulate, implement, and monitor National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) and submit/update “adaptation communications” that report on these efforts. These reports should include national priorities, implementation and support needs, plans and actions.
| Information Content | Target Countries | Mandatory or Voluntary |
|---|---|---|
| National Inventory Report (NIR) | All | Mandatory |
| Information necessary to track progress made in implementing and achieving NDCs | All | Mandatory |
| Information on climate change impacts and adaptation | All | Voluntary |
| Information on financial, technology development and transfer, and capacity-building support provided and mobilized | Developed Countries | Mandatory |
| Information on financial, technology development and transfer, and capacity-building support needed and received | Developing Countries | Voluntary |
Reporting on adaptation initiatives in NDCs and biennial transparency reports is voluntary.
Global collective progress is assessed every five years through the Global Stocktake. This process involves meetings in which officials and scientists from each country evaluate progress through dialogues informed by the IPCC’s assessment report and information submitted individually to the secretariat by each country. Based on these discussions, a report is compiled on gaps between Paris Agreement targets and actual progress, solutions to close these gaps, and good practices.
Member states are expected to use this assessment to set more ambitious targets and actions in their subsequent NDCs. (See also the AP-PLAT Adaptation Planning page.)
As of 30 September 2025, 134 Parties have submitted updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC 3.0) in response to the first Global Stocktake, incorporating more ambitious, economy-wide emissions reduction targets aligned with the 1.5℃ goal and outcomes of COP28.
Further strengthening initiatives under the Paris Agreement
While the Paris Agreement includes mechanisms to drive and enhance the climate actions of member states, discussions at COPs continue to strengthen the overall global framework.
These negotiations cover not only mitigation and adaptation but also other matters such as loss and damage, climate finance, and the Global Stocktake, leading to decisions on the formulation of action plans and new mechanisms.